Palermo ... Small
Wednesday, December 30, 2009
Sunday, December 27, 2009
Information About Pregnancy In Urdu
The organic nature of the food we eat every day means that they can be altered. Due to its Seasonal and their different backgrounds, it will normally have to be kept for some time before being consumed ...
1. Conservation
there foods that can be stored for an extended period of time. Within this group are called stable foods, do not freak out if treated with care (such as sugar, pulses, etc.), And unstable food, they need more careful handling (such as potatoes, fruits, etc.).
Other foods, however, enjoy a short shelf life and need specific treatments to prevent spoilage. Are foods semifrescos fresh or as meat, fish, eggs or milk.
2. Causes of altered
1. Conservation
there foods that can be stored for an extended period of time. Within this group are called stable foods, do not freak out if treated with care (such as sugar, pulses, etc.), And unstable food, they need more careful handling (such as potatoes, fruits, etc.).
Other foods, however, enjoy a short shelf life and need specific treatments to prevent spoilage. Are foods semifrescos fresh or as meat, fish, eggs or milk.
2. Causes of altered
Physical causes
The presence of excessively high or too low, the gain or loss of moisture and radiation can cause disruption of food.
The presence of excessively high or too low, the gain or loss of moisture and radiation can cause disruption of food.
also causes chemical changes occur due to chemical. Fats in foods are oxidized flavor and odor characteristic to food, even when they are in low proportion.
Causes
biological causes Previous almost always are associated with the biological causes such as microorganisms, parasites, insects or rodents.
biological causes Previous almost always are associated with the biological causes such as microorganisms, parasites, insects or rodents.
Of all the causes that will further discuss the biological cause. In general, microorganisms are associated with particular food groups. They can survive the heat treatment required for canning or contaminate the food after treatment due to sutures or container leaks.
When pollution is before treatment, it is possible to predict the organism responsible if they are aware of the nature of the food and the conditions under which the food has undergone. However, microorganisms that are introduced by leaks can be varied as the composition of the cooling means.
When pollution is before treatment, it is possible to predict the organism responsible if they are aware of the nature of the food and the conditions under which the food has undergone. However, microorganisms that are introduced by leaks can be varied as the composition of the cooling means.
Table. Classification of foods according to their acidity ( Cameron and Esty, 1940 ) groups of spoilage organisms in canned foods.
| groups according to degree of acidity | pH range | food groups | Microorganisms |
| Group 1: Low-acid | > = \u200b\u200b5 | meat products, marine products, milk, vegetables | Aerobic sporulated sporulated anaerobes, yeasts, molds and bacteria spore |
| Group 2: semi-acid | 4.5> = pH <> | Mixed meat and vegetables, soups, sauces | |
| Group 3: acid 3.7 | <= pH <> | Tomatoes, Pears, Figs, Pineapple Other fruits | spore bacteria, non spore bacteria, Yeasts, molds |
| Group 4: very acidic PH | <> | Pickles Grapefruit, Citrus Juices |
According
heat requirements microorganisms can be From less to more demanding: psychrophiles, mesophiles, thermophiles and thermoduric, the latter two the most interesting from the standpoint of heat treatment. Thermophiles are able to develop at high temperatures (55 º C and above), while thermoduric are able to withstand the effect of high temperatures. However, mesophilic organisms can be thermoduric because its spores, as spores may be thermophilic bacteria ( Desrosier, 1987 ). In turn, Cameron and Esty ( 1926 ) classify thermophilic organisms into two groups: thermophilic required (growing at 55 ° C but not at 37 º C) and thermophilic facultative (grown at 55 ° C and 37 ° C). According
oxygen requirements of microorganisms include: aerobic (requiring the presence of oxygen), anerobios (only develop in the absence of oxygen or low oxygen tension) and facultative anaerobes.
2. MICROORGANISMS IN FOODS OF LOW ACID AND MEDIA
2.1. Aerobic spore
The most widespread are those of the genus Bacillus , which has its roots in the soil and water, which almost always present in the raw materials used in preserves.
Its optimum growth temperature ranges between 28 and 40 º C for most, although some thermophiles, which can grow at 55 ° C and even 70 º C.
Among these we find both obligate aerobes, and facultative anaerobes, the latter can grow in vacuum.
The types of alterations that may take place are the simple fermentation, producing gas and acid and gas.
Bacillus cereus
simple fermentation is the most common and is due to attack of the carbohydrates with production of acid and no gas production. B. and B. stearothermophilus coagulans are the main cause of fermentation thermophilic simple. The first, low acid products (peas, vegetables ..., does not grow with a pH less than 5), subject to relatively intense heat treatment, although no alteration occurs when cooling is fast and if done in cold storage. B. is aciduric coagulans (up to pH 4.2) and has less heat-resistant spores, so that changes occur in canned meats, and that the heat treatment for them is lower than in vegetables. It also appears associated with acidic (tomato juice), because its low pH and heat treatment is light.
gas production by aerobic spore is due to the denitrification of nitrate in cured meats, canned corn, peas, etc.. B. and B. cereus mesentericus displayed in salmon, crab and shrimp.
B. and B. macerans Polymix form acid and gas.
2.2. Anaerobic spore
sporulated anaerobes come mainly from the soil, which are widely found in milk, vegetables and other foodstuffs. It is also possible to find them in the flesh, as some species also grow in the intestines of humans and animals.
The most important genus is Clostridium , may find thermophiles and mesophiles. Among the former, are the most important saccharolytic, producing large quantities of gas from carbohydrates, mainly carbon dioxide and hydrogen, leading the bulging of the cans. These changes are accompanied by a butyric odor. Not produce hydrogen sulfide. The optimum growth temperature is around 55 degrees C, appearing mostly in hot countries, where storage temperatures can exceed 35 º C. Thermophiles can also cause a change in sulfur, in this case hydrogen sulfide production.
mesophilic organisms are second in importance after the cause of simple fermentation. Among these is Clostridium botulinum . It is a Gram-positive bacteria, anaerobic and sporogenous, whose growth is inhibited at pH lower than 4.5. However, aerobic organisms of a food can grow and use oxygen in a container, creating anaerobic conditions conducive to their development and an acidic product can grow C. botulinum, if present, when the acid has been used by other agencies, increasing the pH. It is the toughest of food poisoning microorganisms, as canning industry generally supports all non-acid treated products must meet the basic requirements necessary to destroy C. botulinum (sterilization for 2.8 minutes at 121.1 ° C). In no processed foods properly allowed the development of this bacterium, although there are foods with solid portions in which there may be heterogeneity of pH for some time, so it should be kept below 4.5 pH as a safety margin. This organism deserves special mention because of its significance to human health. Occurs in both vegetative and spore form, the latter being as important from the standpoint of food canning. The vegetative form is easily destroyed at temperatures below 100 º C, while spores, which come from dust and soil, can survive 300 minutes of boiling at 100 ° C. They vary their resistance to heat, making it difficult to obtain a spore suspension of uniform resistance heat for study. Has proteolytic and saccharolytic powers. Botulinum toxin is soluble in water and extremely lethal to humans (types A and B). The spores must germinate to produce a vegetative cell that produces the toxin, so this is unlikely to find the body with toxins, so that food can be ingested by the absence of evidence of contamination (taste and smell). This toxin is destroyed by ten minutes exposure to wet heat at 100 º C. Determining the type of toxin was carried out by antigenic reactions.
The optimum temperature for growth of mesophilic organisms between 20 and 50 º C (some less and others, but generally is 37 º C). According to their ability to attack carbohydrates can be of two types: proteolytic and saccharolytic or putrefactive. The former are soft to spoilage of food degradation and production of odor compounds. These are more important in foods of low acidity and a half, except for canned ham, which is disturbed due saccharolytic type C. perfringens. Highlights C. hystolyticum , C. and C. sporogenes bifermentans. Among the most common type are saccharolytic C. butyricum , C. pasteurianum, C. perfringens and others.
2.3. Yeasts, molds and bacteria spore
The only important in low-acid foods and half are those with relatively low thermal resistance, which changes occur due to leaks in the can and those that cause changes in the condensed milk and meat canned cured (ham, bacon, etc.)..
Among the highlights yeast fermenting sucrose developed in condensed milk, since this food is not subjected to any heat treatment, but the basis of conservation lies in its high sugar content. Torula globosa , round cells, causes the relaxation of the lids. Torula lactiscondensis , oval cell, produces a more vigorous muco fermentation, so that the cans may explode in a few days.
Aspergillus repens is a mold that leads to the formation of buttons on the surface of condensed milk. Within
spore bacteria include:
- Pseudomonas fluorescens, which poduce rancidity.
- Streptococcus liquefaciens, which causes liquefaction of the gelatin of canned ham.
- S. faecicum and S. faecalis are faecal streptococci produce odors and tastes in canned hams. The first is of interest because of its higher heat resistance.
- The Enterobacteriaceae (coliforms, Aerobacter, Proteus sp., Etc.) Are responsible for the ballooning of the canned ham.
3. MICROORGANISMS IN ACID PRODUCTS
In most cases easily handled with a relatively short heat treatment at a temperature below 100 ° C.
3.1. Spore bacteria can be found
and other saccharolytic anaerobic bacteria responsible for fermentation simple. Within the first stand Clostridium pasteurianum, which produces gaseous alteration of fruits and canned tomatoes and do not develop a pH below 3.7, and C. butyricum, which also affects canned fruits. Bacillus coagulans
is responsible for simple fermentation in canned tomato juice, besides causing abnormal flavors. It is thermophilic and grows even pH of 4.2.
B. macerans produces alterations in canned fruits and soft drinks along with B. Polymix, canned vegetables and fruits.
3.2.
spore bacteria are Gram positive
lactic acid (cocci and bacilli) and some are producing gas. Can be developed with low oxygen tension and are responsible for fermentation of vegetables. Destroyed by heat treatment below 100 º C.
Lactobacillus brevis causes a vigorous fermentation in ketchup and similar products and is forming gas. Leuconostoc
pleofructi of altered fruit juices, leading to the formation of a layer of slime in sugar solutions (altered tomato products).
Leuconostoc mesenteroides results in the alteration of canned pineapple soda.
3.3. Yeast
presents little resistance
heat, so are not common in heat-treated canned and yes when treatment is subtérmico or leakage.
are responsible for the fermentation of acidic sauces, jellies and similar products whose retention depends on the acid, sugar and salt.
3.4.
mold Byssochlamys fulva is the species of mold of greater importance in acid canned foods. Affects canned and bottled fruit. Is responsible for the disintegration of the fruit by decomposition of scallop. Cans sometimes bulge due to the release of carbon dioxide. Its optimum growth temperature is 30-37 º C and is highly resistant to heat.
Byssochlamys nivea is similar to the previous and is much more frequent alteration inthe canned strawberries. Penicillium
affects canned gooseberries and is highly heat resistant.
Aspergillus is also heat resistant and comes in canned strawberries. Rhizopus nigricans
is responsible for the degradation of canned fruit, especially apricot.
Rhizopus stolonifer causes softening of canned apricots.
Source:
Thursday, December 24, 2009
Virtue Ethics And Abortion Hursthouse
BUSINESS AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
Keywords: business and financial analysis, financial statements , decision making, financial ratios, profitability, liquidity, vertical analysis method, procedure simple reasons
develop skills to perform financial analysis of the company from financial statements is of great importance for decision making .
Financial analysis is to collect financial statements to compare and study the relationships between different groups of each and see the changes made by the various operations of the company.
The interpretation of data obtained through the financial analysis allows management to measure progress by comparing the results achieved with the planned operations and checks, plus reports on debt capacity, profitability and financial strength or weakness This facilitates the analysis of the economic situation of the enterprise for decision making.
METHODS OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
financial analysis methods are considered to simplify the procedures used to separate or reduce descriptive and numerical data that comprise the financial statements in order to measure the relationships in a single period and changes in several accounting periods presented.
for the financial analysis is important to know the meaning of the following terms:
PERFORMANCE: The performance generated by the assets put into operation.
RATE OF RETURN: The percentage of use in a given period.
LIQUIDITY: The ability of a company to pay their debts promptly. According
how to analyze the content of financial statements There are the following evaluation methods: method of analysis
vertical
Used to analyze financial statements and the Balance Sheet and Income Statement, comparing the numbers vertically. To make vertical analysis there are two procedures:
1. Percentages comprehensive procedure: It consists in determining the percentage composition of each account of Assets, Liabilities and Equity, based on the value of total assets and the percentage for each income statement item from net sales. Percentage
integral part = value / base value X 100
Example The value of total assets of the company is $ 1,000,000 and the value of inventories of goods is $ 350,000. Calculate the percentage integral. Percentage
integral = X 100
350.000/1.000.000 integral = 35% Percentage
financial analysis to determine whether to invest or extend credit to the business, etc., and determine the efficiency of business management.
2. Procedure simple reasons: simple reasons procedure has great practical value, since it allows to obtain an unlimited number of reasons and indices used to assess liquidity, solvency, stability, strength and profitability as well as the permanence of their inventories storage, periods of recovery from customers and payments to suppliers and other factors widely used to analyze economic and financial situation of a company.
horizontal analysis method
This procedure is to compare financial statements uniform in two or more consecutive periods, to determine increases and decreases or changes in the accounts, from one period to another.
This analysis is of great importance to the company because he is informed by whether changes in the activities and if the results are positive or negative, can also define which deserve more attention as significant changes in gait.
Unlike the vertical analysis is static because it analyzes and compares data in a single period, this process is dynamic because it relates changes in financial statements presented in increases or decreases from one period to another. It also shows the variations in absolute numbers, percentages or reasons, allowing widely observed changes submitted for study, interpretation and decision making.
analysis procedure takes two are
Financial Statements (Balance Sheet and Income Statement) for two consecutive terms, prepared on the same basis of valuation.are presented accounts of the country reviewed. (Excluding the valuation account Cando case of the Balance Sheet).
values \u200b\u200bare recorded for each account in two columns on the two dates be compared, registering in the first column of figures the most recent period and the second column, the previous period. (The accounts must be registered by net worth).
another column is created to indicate increases or decreases, indicating the difference between the figures in the two periods, subtracting the values \u200b\u200bof the most recent year previous year's values. (Increases are positive and decreases are negative values).
In an additional column is recorded and percentage increases and decreases. (This is obtained by dividing the value of increased or decreased between the base period value multiplied by 100). In another column
record changes in terms of reasons. (You get when you take the absolute data of the comparative financial statements and divide the values \u200b\u200bof most recent year between the values \u200b\u200bof the previous year). By observing the data, it follows that when the ratio is below 1, there was a decrease and when it is above, there were increasing.
The financial analysis is undoubtedly an essential tool for defining good strategic development plan of the company, the full knowledge of the company's financial situation is a basic element for whom decisions short and long term, not forgetting the fundamental mission of every manager is to generate the greatest value for the benefit of their organization, and to do this requires that the information is of better quality can be obtained by replacing the smell in business, supported by information in reality.
Author: Giovanny E. Gómez
Tuesday, December 22, 2009
Hair Clips Directions
Business administration, management science or just management, is a social science that studies the organization of business and the way they manage resources, processes and results of activities.
are administrative sciences and financial economics, accounting, corporate finance and marketing, strategic management etc.
Management is based around a company and know that if we manage not the result desired, so as we might say that the administration is the foundation of every business, generally speaking, because when we talk about Management also know we mean to manage all our life, our time. Concept
is the global process-oriented decision-making to achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently, by planning, organization, integration of personnel, management (leadership) and control. It is a science that is based on looking at future technical, coordinating things, people and systems to achieve, through an objective comparison and hierarchy to effectively and efficiently. Historical Development
There are difficulties to go back to the origin story of the administration. Some writers trace the development of the administration to Sumerian traders and the ancient Egyptians built the pyramids, or the organizational methods of the Church and the old militias. However, many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, they were not required to systematically address the management applications.
Innovations such as the extension of Arabic numbers (between ages V and XV) and the emergence of double entry bookkeeping in 1494 provided the tools for planning and control organizations, and thus birth formal administration. However, it is in the nineteenth century when the first publications that talked about how scientific management, and the first approach of an emergency method claimed given the emergence of the industrial revolution. Siglo XIX
Some think of modern management as a discipline began as an offshoot of the economy in the nineteenth century. The classical economists such as Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill provided a theoretical background to resource allocation, production, and pricing. At the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney, James Watt and Matthew Boulton, developed technical tools of production such as standardization, quality control procedures, cost accounting, and planning work.
end of the nineteenth century, Leon Walras, Alfred Marshall and other economists introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical principles of the Administration. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiary course on Management in 1881. That's right. jr says. Twentieth Century
During the twentieth century the administration was evolving as organizations became more complex as engineering sciences, sociology, psychology and systems theory were developed.
Classical Theory of Scientific Management School Around 1900
entrepreneurs are trying to give their theories a scientific basis. Examples include "Science of management" of Henry Towne, 1890, "Scientific Management" by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1911), "The study Applied movement of Franck and Lillian Gilbreth (1917). In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the first consultant in business administration in creating the "Japanese style management." His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered of Japanese quality assurance. For the 1930 Fordism makes its appearance, following the ideas of Henry Ford the founder of the Ford Motor Company.
School of Management and Industrial General
The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. First, Henri Fayol, who is credited as the founder of classical school of management, was the first systematic managerial behavior and established the 14 principles of management in his book "Industrial and General Administration"
Subordination of individual interests: Above the employees' interests are the interests of the company.
Control Unit, an employee in any job should only take orders from a superior.
Management Unit: One head and one plan for all group activities that have a single objective. This is the essential condition for achieving unity of action, coordination of effort and focus. The control unit can not happen without unity of direction, but does not follow from this.
Centralization: The concentration of authority in the high ranks of the hierarchy.
Hierarchy: Chain of heads ranging from the highest authority to the lowest level and the root of all communication goes to the highest authority.
Division of labor: it means that should specialize the tasks to develop and staff in their work.
Authority and Responsibility: The ability to give orders and expect obedience from others, this creates more responsibilities.
Discipline: This depends on factors such as the desire to work, obedience, dedication, proper behavior. Compensation
personal satisfaction should be guaranteed fair and employees.
Order: Everything must be properly put in place and in place, this order is both material and human.
Equity: kindness and justice to obtain the loyalty of staff.
Stability and duration of staff in charge: You have to give stability to the staff.
Initiative: It has to do with the ability to visualize a plan to monitor and ensure the success of this.
Team Spirit: Have everyone working within the company warmly as if they were a team, make the strength of an organization. Bureaucratic School
The German sociologist Max Weber (1864 - 1920), thinking that an organization aimed at achieving goals, and made by thousands of individuals, required close monitoring of their activities, developed a theory of bureaucratic administration which emphasized the need for a hierarchy in terms defined and governed by strict rules and lines of authority clearly defined. Considered that the ideal was a bureaucratic organization with activities and objectives established by a deep reasoning and a detailed division of labor explicitly. Weber also believed that the expertise was of great importance and that the evaluation of the results should be completely based on merit.
is believed that bureaucracies are vast and impersonal organizations, they attach more importance to the impersonal efficiency to human needs. Weber and all the scientific management theorists, sought to improve the outcomes of major societal organizations, making their operations were predictable and productive. Although we now attach much value to innovation and flexibility as to efficiency and susceptibility to forecast, the model of Weber's bureaucratic administration came forward, clearly, to the giant corporations like Ford. Weber thought that the particular pattern of relationships that had the bureaucracy was very promising.
School of Human Relations School of Human Relations arose partly because the traditional approach could not sufficiently productive efficiency and harmony in the workplace. This caused increased interest in helping managers to more effectively manage their human resources organizations. Several theorists tried to strengthen classical theory of the organization with elements of sociology and psychology.
line of research in this school is that of Elton Mayo and some other Harvard colleagues, including Fritz J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson who conducted a series of studies at Western Electric Company between 1924 and 1933, which eventually became known as "Hawthorne Studies", because many of them were made in the Western Electric Hawthorne plant near Chicago.
These studies investigated the relationship between the amount of lighting in the workplace and worker productivity. The investigators concluded that employees would work with more determination if management cared about their welfare and whether supervisors are paid special attention. This phenomenon became known later as the Hawthorne effect.
The researchers also concluded that informal working groups (the social environment of the employees) have a positive influence on productivity. Many employees Western Electric felt that their work was boring and pointless, but that their relationships and friendships with their peers, sometimes subject to the influence of a shared antagonism against the leaders, gave some meaning to their work and offered them some protection against management. Therefore, peer pressure often posed a greater influence to increase the productivity of workers that the demands of management.
So May was of the opinion that the concept of social man (driven by social needs, eager rewarding relationships at work and more sensitive to the pressures of the working group that the administrative control) were snap need the old concept of rational man, moved by his personal financial needs.
By highlighting the social, the human relations movement improved the classical view that productivity almost exclusively considered as an engineering problem. In a way, May rediscovered the old principle whereby Robert Owen, a genuine concern for workers, "vital machines" as Owen used to call them, would pay dividends.
addition, these researchers stressed the importance of the manager's style and thus revolutionized the training of administrators. The attention was increasingly focused to teach management skills, as opposed to technical skills. Finally, his work has revived interest in group dynamics. Administrators began to think in terms of processes and group awards to complement its previous approach on the individual. School Psychological
Maslow and Douglas McGregor, among others, wrote about the personal growth of individuals. His work spawned new concepts regarding the possibility of ordering relations for the benefit of organizations. In addition, they determined that people wanted to get something more than an instant reward or pleasure. Since people have complex life forms, then the relations in the organization should support this complexity.
According to Maslow, the needs they want to meet people have a pyramid. The physical and security needs at the base of the pyramid and ego needs (eg, the need for respect) and self-actualization needs (such as the need for personal growth and meaning) are at the top. McGregor presented another angle of the concept of complex person. Distinguished two alternative assumptions about people and their position in the job. These two hypotheses which he called Theory X and Theory Y, Theory
Organization Theory of Organizations Central aims to discover the limitations of human rationality. Administrative Man's Party which identifies when it behaves with relative rationality and seeks to obtain satisfactory results, and the difference of Economic Man to act rationally and seek to maximize profit.
James March and Herbert Simon did a work in the late 1950s which raised hundreds of proportion about the patterns of behavior, particularly in relation to communication in organizations. His influence on the development of subsequent management theory has been important and continuing to investigate scientifically.
One of his greatest contributions was the theory of decision
Systems Theory
The context in which it develops the theory of systems is that of a Cold War, which occurred between two diametrically opposed blocs in their ideas: communism and capitalism.
general systems theory or systems theory (GST) is an interdisciplinary research effort that aims to find common properties to entities, systems, occurring at all levels of reality, but are subject traditionally academic disciplines. Its implementation is attributed to the Austrian biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy who coined the term in the mid-twentieth century.
organizations as systems: An organization is a socio-technical system included in a broader society is that it interacts influence each other.
can also be defined as a social system, composed of individuals and working groups that meet a certain structure and within a context which partly controls, carry out activities using resources in pursuit of common values.
functions or functional areas of organizations
Human Resource Management Operations Management and Production Management Directorate
Strategic Marketing Management
Management Financial Management Information Technology responsible for management information systems
Administrative Process
The administrative process is the core of business management as a discipline of study, is present in much of the definitions can be found on it.
The process consists of four or more steps (by the author), which in its most basic and accepted are: Planning
Business Organization Economics and Business Management Management Control
Other versions or authors:
together the steps to organize and lead (run) under the name of managing. Aggregate Functions
after handling and before control
The process is also a continuous cycle, and then the last step to control returns to start planning.
detailed functions or processes are not independent, but are completely interrelated. When an organization develops a plan, it must order the structure to enable implementation. After the execution (or perhaps simultaneously) is controlled by the reality of the company is not planning to move away, or if it seeks to understand the causes of this estrangement. Finally, the control may arise a correction made in the planning, which feeds the process.
The role of administrator administrator's profession is varied depending on the level at which position the administrator, must live with the routine and daily uncertainty or operational level planning, organizing, directing and controlling activities your department or division in the intermediate level, or even decision-making at the institutional level, facing an external environment that the company intends to serve. The more you worry the manager to know or learn how to perform the tasks, but be prepared to act at the operational level of the company. The more you worry about developing concepts will be prepared to act at the institutional level of the company. An administrator must know how to prepare a cost estimate or a forecast of sales, how to build a chart or flow chart, and read a balance sheet prepared as planning and production control, etc., as these skills are valuable for administration, however the most important and critical question is how to use them and under what circumstances to apply properly.
management professionals are the administrators, with the university awarding the respective title's Degree in Business Administration Business, also in almost every country in the world there is a master of business degree called MBA. schools must publish classic
are administrative sciences and financial economics, accounting, corporate finance and marketing, strategic management etc.
Management is based around a company and know that if we manage not the result desired, so as we might say that the administration is the foundation of every business, generally speaking, because when we talk about Management also know we mean to manage all our life, our time. Concept
is the global process-oriented decision-making to achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently, by planning, organization, integration of personnel, management (leadership) and control. It is a science that is based on looking at future technical, coordinating things, people and systems to achieve, through an objective comparison and hierarchy to effectively and efficiently. Historical Development
There are difficulties to go back to the origin story of the administration. Some writers trace the development of the administration to Sumerian traders and the ancient Egyptians built the pyramids, or the organizational methods of the Church and the old militias. However, many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, they were not required to systematically address the management applications.
Innovations such as the extension of Arabic numbers (between ages V and XV) and the emergence of double entry bookkeeping in 1494 provided the tools for planning and control organizations, and thus birth formal administration. However, it is in the nineteenth century when the first publications that talked about how scientific management, and the first approach of an emergency method claimed given the emergence of the industrial revolution. Siglo XIX
Some think of modern management as a discipline began as an offshoot of the economy in the nineteenth century. The classical economists such as Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill provided a theoretical background to resource allocation, production, and pricing. At the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney, James Watt and Matthew Boulton, developed technical tools of production such as standardization, quality control procedures, cost accounting, and planning work.
end of the nineteenth century, Leon Walras, Alfred Marshall and other economists introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical principles of the Administration. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiary course on Management in 1881. That's right. jr says. Twentieth Century
During the twentieth century the administration was evolving as organizations became more complex as engineering sciences, sociology, psychology and systems theory were developed.
Classical Theory of Scientific Management School Around 1900
entrepreneurs are trying to give their theories a scientific basis. Examples include "Science of management" of Henry Towne, 1890, "Scientific Management" by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1911), "The study Applied movement of Franck and Lillian Gilbreth (1917). In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the first consultant in business administration in creating the "Japanese style management." His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered of Japanese quality assurance. For the 1930 Fordism makes its appearance, following the ideas of Henry Ford the founder of the Ford Motor Company.
School of Management and Industrial General
The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. First, Henri Fayol, who is credited as the founder of classical school of management, was the first systematic managerial behavior and established the 14 principles of management in his book "Industrial and General Administration"
Subordination of individual interests: Above the employees' interests are the interests of the company.
Control Unit, an employee in any job should only take orders from a superior.
Management Unit: One head and one plan for all group activities that have a single objective. This is the essential condition for achieving unity of action, coordination of effort and focus. The control unit can not happen without unity of direction, but does not follow from this.
Centralization: The concentration of authority in the high ranks of the hierarchy.
Hierarchy: Chain of heads ranging from the highest authority to the lowest level and the root of all communication goes to the highest authority.
Division of labor: it means that should specialize the tasks to develop and staff in their work.
Authority and Responsibility: The ability to give orders and expect obedience from others, this creates more responsibilities.
Discipline: This depends on factors such as the desire to work, obedience, dedication, proper behavior. Compensation
personal satisfaction should be guaranteed fair and employees.
Order: Everything must be properly put in place and in place, this order is both material and human.
Equity: kindness and justice to obtain the loyalty of staff.
Stability and duration of staff in charge: You have to give stability to the staff.
Initiative: It has to do with the ability to visualize a plan to monitor and ensure the success of this.
Team Spirit: Have everyone working within the company warmly as if they were a team, make the strength of an organization. Bureaucratic School
The German sociologist Max Weber (1864 - 1920), thinking that an organization aimed at achieving goals, and made by thousands of individuals, required close monitoring of their activities, developed a theory of bureaucratic administration which emphasized the need for a hierarchy in terms defined and governed by strict rules and lines of authority clearly defined. Considered that the ideal was a bureaucratic organization with activities and objectives established by a deep reasoning and a detailed division of labor explicitly. Weber also believed that the expertise was of great importance and that the evaluation of the results should be completely based on merit.
is believed that bureaucracies are vast and impersonal organizations, they attach more importance to the impersonal efficiency to human needs. Weber and all the scientific management theorists, sought to improve the outcomes of major societal organizations, making their operations were predictable and productive. Although we now attach much value to innovation and flexibility as to efficiency and susceptibility to forecast, the model of Weber's bureaucratic administration came forward, clearly, to the giant corporations like Ford. Weber thought that the particular pattern of relationships that had the bureaucracy was very promising.
School of Human Relations School of Human Relations arose partly because the traditional approach could not sufficiently productive efficiency and harmony in the workplace. This caused increased interest in helping managers to more effectively manage their human resources organizations. Several theorists tried to strengthen classical theory of the organization with elements of sociology and psychology.
line of research in this school is that of Elton Mayo and some other Harvard colleagues, including Fritz J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson who conducted a series of studies at Western Electric Company between 1924 and 1933, which eventually became known as "Hawthorne Studies", because many of them were made in the Western Electric Hawthorne plant near Chicago.
These studies investigated the relationship between the amount of lighting in the workplace and worker productivity. The investigators concluded that employees would work with more determination if management cared about their welfare and whether supervisors are paid special attention. This phenomenon became known later as the Hawthorne effect.
The researchers also concluded that informal working groups (the social environment of the employees) have a positive influence on productivity. Many employees Western Electric felt that their work was boring and pointless, but that their relationships and friendships with their peers, sometimes subject to the influence of a shared antagonism against the leaders, gave some meaning to their work and offered them some protection against management. Therefore, peer pressure often posed a greater influence to increase the productivity of workers that the demands of management.
So May was of the opinion that the concept of social man (driven by social needs, eager rewarding relationships at work and more sensitive to the pressures of the working group that the administrative control) were snap need the old concept of rational man, moved by his personal financial needs.
By highlighting the social, the human relations movement improved the classical view that productivity almost exclusively considered as an engineering problem. In a way, May rediscovered the old principle whereby Robert Owen, a genuine concern for workers, "vital machines" as Owen used to call them, would pay dividends.
addition, these researchers stressed the importance of the manager's style and thus revolutionized the training of administrators. The attention was increasingly focused to teach management skills, as opposed to technical skills. Finally, his work has revived interest in group dynamics. Administrators began to think in terms of processes and group awards to complement its previous approach on the individual. School Psychological
Maslow and Douglas McGregor, among others, wrote about the personal growth of individuals. His work spawned new concepts regarding the possibility of ordering relations for the benefit of organizations. In addition, they determined that people wanted to get something more than an instant reward or pleasure. Since people have complex life forms, then the relations in the organization should support this complexity.
According to Maslow, the needs they want to meet people have a pyramid. The physical and security needs at the base of the pyramid and ego needs (eg, the need for respect) and self-actualization needs (such as the need for personal growth and meaning) are at the top. McGregor presented another angle of the concept of complex person. Distinguished two alternative assumptions about people and their position in the job. These two hypotheses which he called Theory X and Theory Y, Theory
Organization Theory of Organizations Central aims to discover the limitations of human rationality. Administrative Man's Party which identifies when it behaves with relative rationality and seeks to obtain satisfactory results, and the difference of Economic Man to act rationally and seek to maximize profit.
James March and Herbert Simon did a work in the late 1950s which raised hundreds of proportion about the patterns of behavior, particularly in relation to communication in organizations. His influence on the development of subsequent management theory has been important and continuing to investigate scientifically.
One of his greatest contributions was the theory of decision
Systems Theory
The context in which it develops the theory of systems is that of a Cold War, which occurred between two diametrically opposed blocs in their ideas: communism and capitalism.
general systems theory or systems theory (GST) is an interdisciplinary research effort that aims to find common properties to entities, systems, occurring at all levels of reality, but are subject traditionally academic disciplines. Its implementation is attributed to the Austrian biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy who coined the term in the mid-twentieth century.
organizations as systems: An organization is a socio-technical system included in a broader society is that it interacts influence each other.
can also be defined as a social system, composed of individuals and working groups that meet a certain structure and within a context which partly controls, carry out activities using resources in pursuit of common values.
functions or functional areas of organizations
Human Resource Management Operations Management and Production Management Directorate
Strategic Marketing Management
Management Financial Management Information Technology responsible for management information systems
Administrative Process
The administrative process is the core of business management as a discipline of study, is present in much of the definitions can be found on it.
The process consists of four or more steps (by the author), which in its most basic and accepted are: Planning
Business Organization Economics and Business Management Management Control
Other versions or authors:
together the steps to organize and lead (run) under the name of managing. Aggregate Functions
after handling and before control
The process is also a continuous cycle, and then the last step to control returns to start planning.
detailed functions or processes are not independent, but are completely interrelated. When an organization develops a plan, it must order the structure to enable implementation. After the execution (or perhaps simultaneously) is controlled by the reality of the company is not planning to move away, or if it seeks to understand the causes of this estrangement. Finally, the control may arise a correction made in the planning, which feeds the process.
The role of administrator administrator's profession is varied depending on the level at which position the administrator, must live with the routine and daily uncertainty or operational level planning, organizing, directing and controlling activities your department or division in the intermediate level, or even decision-making at the institutional level, facing an external environment that the company intends to serve. The more you worry the manager to know or learn how to perform the tasks, but be prepared to act at the operational level of the company. The more you worry about developing concepts will be prepared to act at the institutional level of the company. An administrator must know how to prepare a cost estimate or a forecast of sales, how to build a chart or flow chart, and read a balance sheet prepared as planning and production control, etc., as these skills are valuable for administration, however the most important and critical question is how to use them and under what circumstances to apply properly.
management professionals are the administrators, with the university awarding the respective title's Degree in Business Administration Business, also in almost every country in the world there is a master of business degree called MBA. schools must publish classic
Sunday, December 20, 2009
Lincense Renewal In Columbus Ohio
social and Optimal
Vilfredo Pareto optimum Pareto (1848-1923)
The early utilitarians believed that utility was a cardinal magnitude as the length or temperature measured in "useful" and that it was possible to make interpersonal comparisons: a log cabin Mr. Rockefeller 10 provide useful, for example, and Mr. Ngone, 35.
Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto in the early s. XX, denied the possibility making such comparisons and reconstructed the theory of consumption and demand on a new basis: the ordinal concept of utility. The ordinal concept can only say that for a given individual, three pies are more useful than two, unable to determine if that "more" means double or triple. Moreover, in his reconstruction of the theory used interpersonal comparisons of utility.
NOTE:
cardinal variables are measurable magnitude. You can say precisely how many units they contain.
Ordinal variables are of comparable magnitude. Although I can not say precisely how many units they contain, it is possible to say that is greater or less than another.
cardinal
All variables are ordinal, but not all ordinals are cardinals.
The key instrument for transition to the ordinal utility concept was proposed by Edgeworth Irish: the indifference curves. The left figure shows a map of indifference curves. Each point on the map represents a combination of different amounts of good X and good Y. Like lines on maps meteorological isobars connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure, the indifference curves connecting points that provide the same utility to the individual referred to the map, ie, baskets of goods to which the individual is indifferent. Lines farther from the origin show preferred situations. Thus, the individual referred to the map is indifferent to B and C, prefer any of these situations to A, but get more value at point D. Note that point D represents a smaller amount of good Y, a gap that seems to be more than offset by a much greater quantity of good X.
To better understand the meaning of indifference maps should take into account all points of the map belong only to an indifference curve, in other words, the indifference curves do not intersect.
But the purchasing power of consumers is limited by the budget at their disposal. In the right figure shows the budget line that marks the boundary of the combinations of assets that the individual can acquire. If you choose to spend all your budget on good Y, the amount would Y1. If you decide to spend it all in good X might get X1. The points below the line Y1-X1 represent situations where the person has not spent all that she can. For this consumer, the preferred position among the possible r is the point: that in which the budget line touches the indifference curve from the origin. If the individual acts rationally, that is the combination of property elected.
formulations utilitarians their cardinal concept of utility, prompted them to propose social reforms that would increase the total social utility, designed this as the sum of the total utility of all individuals.
These were his words "I'm not sure how these questions were first raised, but I remember well how they were brought to my head by my reading somewhere," I think in the works of Sir Henry Maine's history how an Indian official had attempted to explain to an upper caste Brahmin the sanctions of the system of Bentham. "But that said the Brahman, can not be fair. I am ten times more capable of happiness as that untouchable there. "No I felt sympathy for the Brahmin. But I could not avoid the conviction that, if I chose to regard men as equally capable of satisfaction and he considered them as different as a hierarchical scheme, the difference between us could not be resolved using the same methods that were useful in demonstrating other areas of social judgments. "
Lionel Robbins," Interpersonal Comparisons of Utility ", Economic Journal, 1938.
If we accept the possibility of interpersonal comparisons of utility can set a thousand pesetas provide a rich marginal utility much less than that would provide poor. As a result of this, if we proceed to a redistribution of existing wealth, removing the thousand pesetas to the rich and handing them to the poor, the society's total utility increases. The conclusion is clear, the social optimum, the situation in which a society's wealth is distributed so as to provide maximum total utility is achieved when all the wealth is distributed equally among all individuals.
Many scholars have doubts about the possibility of interpersonal comparisons of utility, but it was Pareto who offered an intellectually satisfying alternative. Although we can not distinguish whether an object provides more useful a person to another, if there are circumstances in which we can say without fear of error that the total social utility has increased or decreased.
Said of a distribution of wealth is Pareto-preferred to another when one of the individuals has been increased its usefulness, but has declined any other. Pareto improvement is any change in which an individual obtains more utility without decreasing the utility of any other. Performing successive improvements will reach a Pareto optimal situation. A Pareto optimum is a situation where nobody can get an increase in total utility without implying a decrease in the value of another.
Saturday, December 19, 2009
Confidentiality Clause Email Example
CONSUMPTION CONSUMPTION PART IV (3)
income and equity
The economic concept of utility has changed considerably over its history, giving rise to much controversy. Despite apparently being a very abstract concept, has important legal and political implications, determining different approaches and different criteria of equity redistribution.
Suppose that a judge has to divide an estate of ten million euros of ten children. The late father left stipulated that the money would be introduced in ten numbered boxes that would later be assigned by lot, one for each heir. But since it was not set the amounts deposited in each of the boxes, the judge must decide among the possible criteria for allocation.
The strict fairness criterion: all the brothers are exactly the same amount of money.
The criterion of equal opportunity: All the brothers are as likely to benefit.
simple efficiency criterion: All the brothers get the same utility.
personalized efficiency criterion: The poorer brethren receive more money.
Pareto Criterion: No form of deal is better or even worse, has been dealt all the money.
1. The criterion of strict equality is a maximin strategy. Game theory is a technique for analysis of human behavior proposed by the mathematician von Neumann and economist Oskar Morgenstern. One of their most famous is the maximin strategy as a high security solution for certain types of situations known as zero-sum game, whose peculiarity is that the sum of possible outcomes is constant. Maximin is to choose the solution that maximizes the minimum possible score. For a pessimist who believes that he always plays the worst part, the maximin strategy guarantees that the worst part will be the least bad possible.
Solution 1 st: The proposed problem is a zero sum game because the sum of the content boxes, ten million, will be the same regardless of the distribution is made. If the judge decides to use as a criterion of justice the narrower concept of fairness, the maximin strategy, deposited in each box exactly the same amount, namely one million pesetas. Is thus guaranteed that the less fortunate heir will have received the maximum possible: same as all his brethren.
2. The criterion of equal opportunities. But in principle there is no reason to argue that the only criterion is maximin equity criterion applicable. The concept of expected value provides a wider range of solutions. This idea has its origins in the early scholars of the theory mathematics of probability, back in the eighteenth century. The expected value is calculated by adding all possible outcomes, each multiplied by the probability of occurrence.
Solution 2 ª. With the expected value criterion is any distribution of money between banks will be just as fair, provided that the boxes are distributed among the heirs with equal probability. Suppose the judge introduces four, three, two and one million pesetas in the first four boxes and nothing in the rest. The expected value for all the brothers is the same: a million pesetas. Moreover, it would be the same whether one of the ten boxes saves the total of ten million as if as in the example above, the money would be shared equally a million in each box.
This argument assumes that the brothers are indifferent to risk. The expected value involves more risk than the maximin strategy, the risk of not getting anything. Some people are risk averse so that if given a choice between the solution 1 st and 2 nd prefer the 1 st. Others, however, have a preference for risk; all fans to play the lottery are individuals with a preference for risk and the expected value of the award is always less than the ticket price. A person indifferent to risk is indifferent to the solution 1 st and 2 nd the problem we have raised.
3. Simple criterion of efficiency. Justice can aspire not only equity but also efficiency. That is, not just a question of getting a distribution that satisfies all look alike but also that the sum of profits earned by each of the individuals becomes maximum. But if you consider that it is possible to add utilities are accepting the cardinal concept of utility. On that basis, to meet the twin objectives of efficiency and equity, the concept of diminishing marginal utility limits the possibilities of sharing: the more equal are, the greater the sum total of the profits.
Solution 3 ª. The judge decides to qualify the usefulness of a million pesetas as a "utilón" and consider that larger amounts of money experience diminishing marginal growth as function of the table Napier 4.2 (any other decreasing function lead to the same conclusions.) Thus, if the deal were ten million pesetas in a box and nothing in the other, the total value of 3.3 would utilones. If the distribution was as in Example 2 of four, three, two and one million in just four cases, the total utility of 7.18 would utilones. The distribution that would maximize the total utility of Example 1: one million in each box, which would provide a total of ten utilones.
4. Custom efficiency criterion. However, to lead to its conclusion the cardinal concept of utility applied in the previous solution, it is necessary to note that the value of one million pesetas is different for each individual. Can be expected for a person whose income is five million annually, one million more will provide a much higher marginal utility than the same million to provide another person with annual incomes of a hundred million.
Solution 4 ª. To maximize the utility provided by the estate, the judge decides not to draw the boxes. Each brother will deliver an amount inversely proportional to the income they are receiving regularly. It can achieve an optimal situation if the division, offsetting the poor, get fully match the income of all the brothers.
5. Paretian criterion. Pareto denies the possibility of comparing profits. No one can say that the usefulness of five million is 2.61 times that of a million, nor can we say that a poor be able to enjoy more than a million pesetas for a rich man. You can only say that a situation is better than another when someone has won something without any loss.
Solution 5 ª. The Pareto criterion becomes the judge to grant freedom to make any decision. Any deal is made of ten million will be a Pareto improvement and that no brother will have experienced loss. There is only one condition to fulfill: the entire estate is sorted out completely. 
income and equity
The economic concept of utility has changed considerably over its history, giving rise to much controversy. Despite apparently being a very abstract concept, has important legal and political implications, determining different approaches and different criteria of equity redistribution.
Suppose that a judge has to divide an estate of ten million euros of ten children. The late father left stipulated that the money would be introduced in ten numbered boxes that would later be assigned by lot, one for each heir. But since it was not set the amounts deposited in each of the boxes, the judge must decide among the possible criteria for allocation.
The strict fairness criterion: all the brothers are exactly the same amount of money.
The criterion of equal opportunity: All the brothers are as likely to benefit.
simple efficiency criterion: All the brothers get the same utility.
personalized efficiency criterion: The poorer brethren receive more money.
Pareto Criterion: No form of deal is better or even worse, has been dealt all the money.
1. The criterion of strict equality is a maximin strategy. Game theory is a technique for analysis of human behavior proposed by the mathematician von Neumann and economist Oskar Morgenstern. One of their most famous is the maximin strategy as a high security solution for certain types of situations known as zero-sum game, whose peculiarity is that the sum of possible outcomes is constant. Maximin is to choose the solution that maximizes the minimum possible score. For a pessimist who believes that he always plays the worst part, the maximin strategy guarantees that the worst part will be the least bad possible.
Solution 1 st: The proposed problem is a zero sum game because the sum of the content boxes, ten million, will be the same regardless of the distribution is made. If the judge decides to use as a criterion of justice the narrower concept of fairness, the maximin strategy, deposited in each box exactly the same amount, namely one million pesetas. Is thus guaranteed that the less fortunate heir will have received the maximum possible: same as all his brethren.
2. The criterion of equal opportunities. But in principle there is no reason to argue that the only criterion is maximin equity criterion applicable. The concept of expected value provides a wider range of solutions. This idea has its origins in the early scholars of the theory mathematics of probability, back in the eighteenth century. The expected value is calculated by adding all possible outcomes, each multiplied by the probability of occurrence.
Solution 2 ª. With the expected value criterion is any distribution of money between banks will be just as fair, provided that the boxes are distributed among the heirs with equal probability. Suppose the judge introduces four, three, two and one million pesetas in the first four boxes and nothing in the rest. The expected value for all the brothers is the same: a million pesetas. Moreover, it would be the same whether one of the ten boxes saves the total of ten million as if as in the example above, the money would be shared equally a million in each box.
This argument assumes that the brothers are indifferent to risk. The expected value involves more risk than the maximin strategy, the risk of not getting anything. Some people are risk averse so that if given a choice between the solution 1 st and 2 nd prefer the 1 st. Others, however, have a preference for risk; all fans to play the lottery are individuals with a preference for risk and the expected value of the award is always less than the ticket price. A person indifferent to risk is indifferent to the solution 1 st and 2 nd the problem we have raised.
3. Simple criterion of efficiency. Justice can aspire not only equity but also efficiency. That is, not just a question of getting a distribution that satisfies all look alike but also that the sum of profits earned by each of the individuals becomes maximum. But if you consider that it is possible to add utilities are accepting the cardinal concept of utility. On that basis, to meet the twin objectives of efficiency and equity, the concept of diminishing marginal utility limits the possibilities of sharing: the more equal are, the greater the sum total of the profits.
Solution 3 ª. The judge decides to qualify the usefulness of a million pesetas as a "utilón" and consider that larger amounts of money experience diminishing marginal growth as function of the table Napier 4.2 (any other decreasing function lead to the same conclusions.) Thus, if the deal were ten million pesetas in a box and nothing in the other, the total value of 3.3 would utilones. If the distribution was as in Example 2 of four, three, two and one million in just four cases, the total utility of 7.18 would utilones. The distribution that would maximize the total utility of Example 1: one million in each box, which would provide a total of ten utilones.
4. Custom efficiency criterion. However, to lead to its conclusion the cardinal concept of utility applied in the previous solution, it is necessary to note that the value of one million pesetas is different for each individual. Can be expected for a person whose income is five million annually, one million more will provide a much higher marginal utility than the same million to provide another person with annual incomes of a hundred million.
Solution 4 ª. To maximize the utility provided by the estate, the judge decides not to draw the boxes. Each brother will deliver an amount inversely proportional to the income they are receiving regularly. It can achieve an optimal situation if the division, offsetting the poor, get fully match the income of all the brothers.
5. Paretian criterion. Pareto denies the possibility of comparing profits. No one can say that the usefulness of five million is 2.61 times that of a million, nor can we say that a poor be able to enjoy more than a million pesetas for a rich man. You can only say that a situation is better than another when someone has won something without any loss.
Solution 5 ª. The Pareto criterion becomes the judge to grant freedom to make any decision. Any deal is made of ten million will be a Pareto improvement and that no brother will have experienced loss. There is only one condition to fulfill: the entire estate is sorted out completely.
Thursday, December 17, 2009
Chances Of A 3rd World War
CONSUMPTION (2)
The elasticity of demand
There are some goods whose demand is highly price sensitive, small variations in price cause large variations in the quantity demanded. It says that they have elastic demand. Assets, by contrast, are less price-sensitive demand are inelastic or rigid. In these there can be wide variations in prices without consumers vary the quantities they require. The intermediate case is called unit-elastic.
The elasticity of demand is measured by calculating the percentage that varies the quantity demanded of a good when its price changes by one per cent. If the result of the transaction is greater than one, the demand for that good is elastic, if the result is between zero and one, demand is inelastic.
factors that influence the demand for either more or less elastic are
1) Type of needs met good. If it is of prime necessity demand is inelastic, it takes whatever the price, but instead whether it is luxury demand will be elastic and that if the price increases a little many consumers can do without it.
2) Existence of substitutes. If there are good substitutes for the good demand is very elastic. For example, a small increase in the price of olive oil can cause a large number of housewives decide to use sunflower oil.
3) Importance of good in terms of cost. If the expenditure on that asset is a very small percentage of the income of individuals, their demand will be inelastic. For example, the pen. The variations in price have little influence on the decisions of consumers who want to buy.
4) The passage of time. To almost all goods, the greater the period of time considered the greater the elasticity of demand. It may be that increasing the price of gasoline, its consumption does not change much, but over time may be substituted in some uses for coal, other uses for alcohol, so the decline in demand only noticeable as time passes.
5) The price. eventually have to take into account the elasticity of demand is not the same along the entire curve. It is possible that high prices the demand is less elastic than when prices are lower or vice versa, depending on the product concerned.
There are different kinds of elasticity. The phenomenon we have been discussing under the name of "give it", could have more properly called price elasticity as they tried to measure the sensitivity of demand to price changes. But demand may also be more or less sensitive to other factors. Call income elasticity to measure the sensitivity of the demand for a commodity to changes in consumer income. Call price elasticity to measure the sensitivity of the demand for a commodity to changes in the price of other goods.
As we saw earlier, when an individual's income increases, consumption of all goods increase as well. But that's not always true. There are some goods, the so-called inferior goods, which are characterized by the fact that increasing the income of individuals reduces the use of them. The classic example is that of potatoes or, in general, foods high in starch. With increasing the income of individuals and societies, these foods are replaced with more high-protein, meat, for example. There are other goods, by contrast, the consumption increases more than proportionally with increasing income. They are luxury goods.
To measure sensitivity to changes in real income of individuals using the concept of income elasticity: The percentage by varying the quantity demanded of a good when the consumer's income varies by one percent. In the case of inferior goods, the income elasticity is negative because it causes increased contraction of demand for those. The income elasticity of luxury goods is very high since the variations in income cause large variations in the quantity demanded. The basic goods, as opposed to inferior goods, have the income elasticity of demand positive but very small, in other words, demand is inelastic with respect to income. Finally, normal goods display a unitary income elasticity, ie, its demand will increase at about the same proportion as do the income of individuals.
Relations that exist between goods allow another form of classification. Are called complementary goods that are consumed together, cars and gasoline, canaries and cages. The peculiarity of these assets is that when the price of one decreases the quantity demanded of another. The opposite phenomenon can be observed in the case of substitute goods or substitutable, they can be used alternatively: the olive oil and sunflower oil. In this case the price increase causes an increase in the quantity demanded of the other.
To measure the sensitivity of the demand for a commodity to changes in the price of another cross-elasticity is used: The percentage by varying the quantity demanded of a good when the price of another varies by one percent. Cross-elasticity will be positive if the variations in the price and quantity demanded are in the same direction, ie in the case of substitute goods. As the sense of change is different between price and demand for complementary goods, the price elasticity is negative.
There are some goods whose demand is highly price sensitive, small variations in price cause large variations in the quantity demanded. It says that they have elastic demand. Assets, by contrast, are less price-sensitive demand are inelastic or rigid. In these there can be wide variations in prices without consumers vary the quantities they require. The intermediate case is called unit-elastic.
The elasticity of demand is measured by calculating the percentage that varies the quantity demanded of a good when its price changes by one per cent. If the result of the transaction is greater than one, the demand for that good is elastic, if the result is between zero and one, demand is inelastic.
factors that influence the demand for either more or less elastic are
1) Type of needs met good. If it is of prime necessity demand is inelastic, it takes whatever the price, but instead whether it is luxury demand will be elastic and that if the price increases a little many consumers can do without it.
2) Existence of substitutes. If there are good substitutes for the good demand is very elastic. For example, a small increase in the price of olive oil can cause a large number of housewives decide to use sunflower oil.
3) Importance of good in terms of cost. If the expenditure on that asset is a very small percentage of the income of individuals, their demand will be inelastic. For example, the pen. The variations in price have little influence on the decisions of consumers who want to buy.
4) The passage of time. To almost all goods, the greater the period of time considered the greater the elasticity of demand. It may be that increasing the price of gasoline, its consumption does not change much, but over time may be substituted in some uses for coal, other uses for alcohol, so the decline in demand only noticeable as time passes.
5) The price. eventually have to take into account the elasticity of demand is not the same along the entire curve. It is possible that high prices the demand is less elastic than when prices are lower or vice versa, depending on the product concerned.
There are different kinds of elasticity. The phenomenon we have been discussing under the name of "give it", could have more properly called price elasticity as they tried to measure the sensitivity of demand to price changes. But demand may also be more or less sensitive to other factors. Call income elasticity to measure the sensitivity of the demand for a commodity to changes in consumer income. Call price elasticity to measure the sensitivity of the demand for a commodity to changes in the price of other goods.
As we saw earlier, when an individual's income increases, consumption of all goods increase as well. But that's not always true. There are some goods, the so-called inferior goods, which are characterized by the fact that increasing the income of individuals reduces the use of them. The classic example is that of potatoes or, in general, foods high in starch. With increasing the income of individuals and societies, these foods are replaced with more high-protein, meat, for example. There are other goods, by contrast, the consumption increases more than proportionally with increasing income. They are luxury goods.
To measure sensitivity to changes in real income of individuals using the concept of income elasticity: The percentage by varying the quantity demanded of a good when the consumer's income varies by one percent. In the case of inferior goods, the income elasticity is negative because it causes increased contraction of demand for those. The income elasticity of luxury goods is very high since the variations in income cause large variations in the quantity demanded. The basic goods, as opposed to inferior goods, have the income elasticity of demand positive but very small, in other words, demand is inelastic with respect to income. Finally, normal goods display a unitary income elasticity, ie, its demand will increase at about the same proportion as do the income of individuals.
Relations that exist between goods allow another form of classification. Are called complementary goods that are consumed together, cars and gasoline, canaries and cages. The peculiarity of these assets is that when the price of one decreases the quantity demanded of another. The opposite phenomenon can be observed in the case of substitute goods or substitutable, they can be used alternatively: the olive oil and sunflower oil. In this case the price increase causes an increase in the quantity demanded of the other.
To measure the sensitivity of the demand for a commodity to changes in the price of another cross-elasticity is used: The percentage by varying the quantity demanded of a good when the price of another varies by one percent. Cross-elasticity will be positive if the variations in the price and quantity demanded are in the same direction, ie in the case of substitute goods. As the sense of change is different between price and demand for complementary goods, the price elasticity is negative.
Tuesday, December 15, 2009
Newfoundland St Bernard Mix
CONSUMPTION (1)
total and marginal utility
Consideration of families as owners of productive resources and income earners are discussed elsewhere in this course. Here we will consider only applicants of goods and services which we refer to these operators the term of 'consumers'.
analyzing the consumption end of last century, neoclassical economists, following the ideas of the utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, assumed that the main motivation of individuals to claim goods and services was to obtain the maximum possible utility. They noted that the utility provided by consumption of a good depends, among other things, the amount of the good that has consumed the individual. Established and the distinction between total utility, the utility that provides all the quantity consumed of the good and the marginal utility: the increase in total income produced by the last unit consumed of that good. Likewise observed that increasing consumption of goods produced satisfaction for each new unit is less than that produced by the previous, so they concluded that the diminishing marginal utility. (See Law of Gossen).
Suppose, for example, we enter into a bakery for a snack. The first fresh produce us great satisfaction, the second we do not like much. If we take cakes come a time when we feel satisfied. Any cake consumed after satiety we find it unpleasant. The marginal utility of cakes, that is, the utility provided by the last cake consumed, it has become increasingly smaller to become negative.
The image plots the total utility at the top, and the marginal utility cakes produced by our example. Note that the height of the "rungs" of the total value matches the size of the steps of marginal utility. In fact, the total value received by the consumption of four cakes is equal to the total income received by the consumption of three more cakes produced by the utility room, ie, its marginal utility.
This representation of utility has been presented in discrete form, ie, considering the effect of each cake individually. We might have considered the utility produced by each half cake, or a quart of cake pieces of cake or small everything we want. In doing so, the width of each step would be reduced to be a single point and the stairs would be transformed into a curved line. This is a presentation of the utility continuously.
THESE WERE HIS WORDS A good performance by adjusting the margins between each line of expenditure so that the marginal utility of shilling spent on each property is equal. And this result will be achieved individually monitored constantly if there is anything you are spending so much, who would win a little money by removing that line and putting spending somewhere else.
(Alfred Marshall, Principles of Economics, 1890)
If an individual is offered the opportunity to purchase units of two types of goods will choose one that will produce greater satisfaction, ie, one whose marginal utility is higher. If you are offered the choice to use the same approach again and again. As a result, the marginal utility of more desirable it will decrease to match the other. Considering many goods the argument remains the same so that the marginal utility of all goods consumed tends to equalize.
Money is useful: it allows us to acquire other goods and services and gives us lots of peace and security for the future. The marginal utility of money, like any other good, is decreasing. If we buy many goods and we have little money, its marginal utility will be high so we retain it without exchanged for other goods. If our income increases, ie, if the amount of money available, the marginal utility of each dollar will be less than that of other goods, which will increase our demand for them.
The shape of the demand curve, its slope decreasing and convex toward the origin, is precisely a consequence of marginal utility analysis: to increase the quantity demanded, its marginal utility is diminishing as we'll be willing to pay less and less money for the product.
Consideration of families as owners of productive resources and income earners are discussed elsewhere in this course. Here we will consider only applicants of goods and services which we refer to these operators the term of 'consumers'.
analyzing the consumption end of last century, neoclassical economists, following the ideas of the utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, assumed that the main motivation of individuals to claim goods and services was to obtain the maximum possible utility. They noted that the utility provided by consumption of a good depends, among other things, the amount of the good that has consumed the individual. Established and the distinction between total utility, the utility that provides all the quantity consumed of the good and the marginal utility: the increase in total income produced by the last unit consumed of that good. Likewise observed that increasing consumption of goods produced satisfaction for each new unit is less than that produced by the previous, so they concluded that the diminishing marginal utility. (See Law of Gossen).
Suppose, for example, we enter into a bakery for a snack. The first fresh produce us great satisfaction, the second we do not like much. If we take cakes come a time when we feel satisfied. Any cake consumed after satiety we find it unpleasant. The marginal utility of cakes, that is, the utility provided by the last cake consumed, it has become increasingly smaller to become negative.
The image plots the total utility at the top, and the marginal utility cakes produced by our example. Note that the height of the "rungs" of the total value matches the size of the steps of marginal utility. In fact, the total value received by the consumption of four cakes is equal to the total income received by the consumption of three more cakes produced by the utility room, ie, its marginal utility.
This representation of utility has been presented in discrete form, ie, considering the effect of each cake individually. We might have considered the utility produced by each half cake, or a quart of cake pieces of cake or small everything we want. In doing so, the width of each step would be reduced to be a single point and the stairs would be transformed into a curved line. This is a presentation of the utility continuously.
THESE WERE HIS WORDS A good performance by adjusting the margins between each line of expenditure so that the marginal utility of shilling spent on each property is equal. And this result will be achieved individually monitored constantly if there is anything you are spending so much, who would win a little money by removing that line and putting spending somewhere else.
(Alfred Marshall, Principles of Economics, 1890)
If an individual is offered the opportunity to purchase units of two types of goods will choose one that will produce greater satisfaction, ie, one whose marginal utility is higher. If you are offered the choice to use the same approach again and again. As a result, the marginal utility of more desirable it will decrease to match the other. Considering many goods the argument remains the same so that the marginal utility of all goods consumed tends to equalize.
Money is useful: it allows us to acquire other goods and services and gives us lots of peace and security for the future. The marginal utility of money, like any other good, is decreasing. If we buy many goods and we have little money, its marginal utility will be high so we retain it without exchanged for other goods. If our income increases, ie, if the amount of money available, the marginal utility of each dollar will be less than that of other goods, which will increase our demand for them.
The shape of the demand curve, its slope decreasing and convex toward the origin, is precisely a consequence of marginal utility analysis: to increase the quantity demanded, its marginal utility is diminishing as we'll be willing to pay less and less money for the product.
Wednesday, December 9, 2009
Do Women Like Mens Privates Shaved
Curriculum project
Trinidad Curutchet Mary was born in Bella Vista on 19 November 1985.
He received the national Professor of Visual Arts majoring in printmaking (2008) and specialization in sculpture (2009), the Institute of Visual Arts Regina Pacis.
currently dedicated to the engraving, teaches at the Institute Regina Pacis and his private workshop Bella Vista.
was part of the following group exhibitions:
He received the national Professor of Visual Arts majoring in printmaking (2008) and specialization in sculpture (2009), the Institute of Visual Arts Regina Pacis.
currently dedicated to the engraving, teaches at the Institute Regina Pacis and his private workshop Bella Vista.
was part of the following group exhibitions:
2009, Group exhibition of printmaking, painting and ceramics, Marta Maria Sauri by visual artist, Chacra mine, Palermo.
2009, Exhibition "Open", in charge of the Directorate General of Culture of the Municipality of San Isidro, Workshop "Art who", Laslle 893, San Isidro.
2009, exhibition "Diego Curutchet family," Hall Leon Gallardo, San Miguel. In charge of the Municipality of San Miguel.
2008, Group exhibition of engraving, in charge of Professor Dora Bianchi, School of Visual Arts "Regina Pacis"
2008 collective exposition operated door "OPEN: AN ARTIST DOOR", Gallery La Union , San Isidro
participated in the following competitions:
2008, Mentioned in the tender for the XVI National Exhibition of Engraving, in charge of the institution Regina Pacis.
2007, Contest Finalist in the National Salon of Engraving XV, by the institution Regina Pacis.
2009, Exhibition "Open", in charge of the Directorate General of Culture of the Municipality of San Isidro, Workshop "Art who", Laslle 893, San Isidro.
2009, exhibition "Diego Curutchet family," Hall Leon Gallardo, San Miguel. In charge of the Municipality of San Miguel.
2008, Group exhibition of engraving, in charge of Professor Dora Bianchi, School of Visual Arts "Regina Pacis"
2008 collective exposition operated door "OPEN: AN ARTIST DOOR", Gallery La Union , San Isidro
participated in the following competitions:
2008, Mentioned in the tender for the XVI National Exhibition of Engraving, in charge of the institution Regina Pacis.
2007, Contest Finalist in the National Salon of Engraving XV, by the institution Regina Pacis.
Tuesday, December 8, 2009
Funny & Unique Wedding Invitation Phrases
artificial ecosystem "of a universe Porciuncula interconetado
The project is to create an artificial ecosystem development. The factors that come into play are the proper a natural ecosystem, so will a static and dynamic.
Within the static structure will meet the abiotic factors, such as geomorphological formation (in this case artificially constructed through rusted iron and rivets) climatic factors, water, etc., And biotic, which interact with each whether through competition or complementarity. Within this group were the animals and plants that inhabit the artificial ecological system. The static structure is characterized by mutual dependency between the components and factors, which will give the ecosystem stability and static equilibrium. However, after that stability apparent dynamism will underlie a large and constant mutability.
The dynamic structure is characterized by multiple and constant exchange of materials and energy between the components, as well as the transferred and exit of products and wastes. An example of this dynamism is constant flow of water through the structure that will enable life within the artificial ecosystem, another example is the energy of the sun, the main source of energy for photosynthesis to occur. Thereby achieving an exchange of materials and energy essential for life in the ecosystem. As reflected above
, the project will present visible and other invisible phenomena, that will manifest in the short, medium and long term. This constant mutability and sharing of the various components will give the work a kinetic and procedural nature. Within the project
man will be one of the biotic components that were part of the ecological system, as will be involved through identification with the ecosystem to produce food. The need for food, will make it an important part in this network interface. In turn, we will try to engage the viewer, not only by identification with the food, or by the human condition, but also through the important task of activating the irrigation system. Task that will ensure life in the artificial ecosystem.
The target audience will create an attitude and ecological thinking, saying this interconnectedness and dependence that occurs between organisms, including humans, the abiotic components, and the cosmos, to ensure proper functioning of the universe. And note further that the failure of one of these components, in this case water can trigger events designed to bring about the end of the ecosystem. Creating awareness about the destruction caused by man and his lifestyle, natural ecosystems that are necessary to preserve life on Earth.
Within the static structure will meet the abiotic factors, such as geomorphological formation (in this case artificially constructed through rusted iron and rivets) climatic factors, water, etc., And biotic, which interact with each whether through competition or complementarity. Within this group were the animals and plants that inhabit the artificial ecological system. The static structure is characterized by mutual dependency between the components and factors, which will give the ecosystem stability and static equilibrium. However, after that stability apparent dynamism will underlie a large and constant mutability.
The dynamic structure is characterized by multiple and constant exchange of materials and energy between the components, as well as the transferred and exit of products and wastes. An example of this dynamism is constant flow of water through the structure that will enable life within the artificial ecosystem, another example is the energy of the sun, the main source of energy for photosynthesis to occur. Thereby achieving an exchange of materials and energy essential for life in the ecosystem. As reflected above
, the project will present visible and other invisible phenomena, that will manifest in the short, medium and long term. This constant mutability and sharing of the various components will give the work a kinetic and procedural nature. Within the project
man will be one of the biotic components that were part of the ecological system, as will be involved through identification with the ecosystem to produce food. The need for food, will make it an important part in this network interface. In turn, we will try to engage the viewer, not only by identification with the food, or by the human condition, but also through the important task of activating the irrigation system. Task that will ensure life in the artificial ecosystem.
The target audience will create an attitude and ecological thinking, saying this interconnectedness and dependence that occurs between organisms, including humans, the abiotic components, and the cosmos, to ensure proper functioning of the universe. And note further that the failure of one of these components, in this case water can trigger events designed to bring about the end of the ecosystem. Creating awareness about the destruction caused by man and his lifestyle, natural ecosystems that are necessary to preserve life on Earth.
Figure
elements
Chart plants.
irrigation Chart
Projection. Photomontage
on the existing economic structure and made of wrought iron sheet and rivets.
Friday, December 4, 2009
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