1 .- English in the world. Status and prospects of diffusion.
Our language is now an official language and / or culture of more than 250 million speakers, of which 90% is the mother tongue. Its extension covers the Southwest and other communities in the United States, including New York, Mexico, Central America and Cuba, Santo Domingo and Puerto Rico, all South America except Brazil and Guyana, a minority in the Philippines, the people sephardic and Equatorial Guinea. Some of these ways of English arrest warrant comment.
The Judeo-English, or Sephardic, is born in the English Middle Ages as a certain cultural peculiarities due to the closed nature of the English Jews. Such trends were observed in archaisms - the Sephardic apocopated even in the fourteenth, a century after the events in Spain - in the tracing of Jewish buildings - as in the corresponding type genitive Forever and ever - and voices Mosaic - like Quinn, "commitment jury" -. In fact, the Judeo-English versions of the Bible, or judesmo not for the spoken, as tight as the original literal Hebrews. The current archaic because it is conserved with few changes in English from the time of the diaspora, which began in 1391 and ended a century later with the expulsion decree of the Catholic Kings. Thus, as an example, we observe that the Latin intervocalic groups remain as mb - plomb lead, "the prepalatal / s / y / z / for the spellings x, gyj falling in the adjustment of wheezing that begins in the XV, or hesitation between peacekeeping and the aspirations of Latin initial f-- Fable by speech-which definitely falls into English in 1520.
One point of destination was Portugal - hence the large number of lusismos survives today, as do, so, this for I am and I am, "also rejected there, they moved to Amsterdam - Spinoza is of Sephardi - and many other places in the East. The other point of diaspora is the country of the Mediterranean: Turkey, all the Maghreb, Palestine, the Balkans ... In the twentieth century has found a notable decline in this type of English for many reasons: for example, the Holocaust almost wiped out the large community of Balkans, in distant countries, small communities were adapted to the language around them, as happened in New York , in Israel itself, the weight of Eastern European communities, especially Slavic majority and linguistic uniformity based on neohebreo have adversely affected the Sephardic: indeed the lexicon becomes poorer and adopted terms of the surrounding communities in Morocco weighs decisively influence of modern English. Currently all variants have synthesized in a form intelligible Sephardic for all Sephardic, on the decline and reduced to the family, despite several publications and cultural events.
missionaries in the Philippines imposed the English language education, ecclesiastical and administrative, creating the apricot, English or Filipino dialect. However, after the loss of the islands in 1898, the U.S. imposed successfully co-official English and Tagalog, native language. English is quickly dwindled to the family for generations and found no respite aged in their offspring, remaining today as a substrate of English and Tagalog.
In the Americas, English is co-official with Quechua in Peru, and Guarani in Paraguay. In Puerto Rico, commonwealth to the U.S., English was the official language since 1902. In 1949, the Ministry of Education ordered the presence of English in the teaching field and, after successive stresses, in 1991 the English again be the official language in Puerto Rico Act by calling 417. Currently, the English has failed to oust the English from the technological and financial areas.
prospects are encouraging English unit, several factors have contributed to this: our language come to America between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when it is already very cohesive, the regulatory unit is reflected in a very strong and has made differences are only oral and partly lexical.
The work of the confederation of the Academies of Language and the Instituto Cervantes has a lot to do with this cohesion, reflected in the growing Latino audiovisual world, increasingly autonomous and powerful even in the U.S. On the other side, migration, rather than tourism, have helped to direct contact between the different Latin American countries and Spain.
2 .- The Latin American English.
2.1 .- Introduction.
diversity to which we have mentioned before is not only the differences between English from Spain and the Americas: can not speak of a single American mode. Pedro Henríquez Ureña distinguished five zones:
Antilles, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Santo Domingo, Venezuela coast and Atlantic coast of Colombia.
Mexican: Mexico Central and Southwest U.S.
Andean Venezuelan Andes plateau Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northwestern Argentina.
Chile: Chile.
River Plate, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay.
The factors involved in this diversity, as we shall show, are the media and speak indigenous African origin of the English colonists and their own evolution.
2.2 .- The influence of indigenous languages \u200b\u200band talk black.
conservation of indigenous languages \u200b\u200bis due to the language policy of evangelization, which the missionaries composed grammars and dictionaries, but from the metropolis were warned to standardize the subjects under the Castilian, this resulted in a decree of Charles III in this regard in 1770. Today there are areas where Indian languages \u200b\u200bare very important: southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, the Pacific coast from Colombia to Peru, the Andes and the Andean highlands, the jungle of the Orinoco, the Amazon, Paraguay and the area araucana in Chile.
The major languages \u200b\u200bare Quechua, which has four million speakers and is co-official in Peru, the Guarani, with two million and co-official in Paraguay, the Nahuatl, which boasts 800,000 users in Mexico, while between 200,000 and 500,000 has mayaquiché speakers in Yucatan and Guatemala, the Aymara in Bolivia and Peru, the Zapotec, Tarascan and Mixtec in Mexico, and the Araucanian in Chile.
For a time he came idealizing the importance of indigenous languages \u200b\u200bin American English. For example, Rodolfo Lenz said that English was a form of Chile Araucanian sounds, however, this argument loses consistency: many of the alleged events were already taking place in the Iberian Peninsula, as the aspiration of / s / implosive, or the existence of a bilabial allophone of / f /. The same is true of plosive frication not grouped with liquid or postconsonántico position, a fact recorded in Spain in 1600.
Other words have been adapted from indigenous to English pronunciation, so the x is pronounced as / s /, as well as [s], ie as predorsodental. Yes there is any Indian influence in bilingual areas, especially phonetic, would illustrate two facts: in the Yucatan, the influence of mayaquiché, voiceless stops, / p / / t / / k /, are pronounced as affricates followed by suction , on the other hand, there are strong Inca past merge / e / e / i / and / o / and / u / as the Quechua and Aymara have only three vowels, / a /, / i / and / e /. Morphologically
only left the Nahuatl suffix /-Eko / with their feminine and plural to indicate relationship - Yucatan - and in parts of Peru survives Aymara suffix /-t / possessive.
The greatest contribution is in the enormous volume lexicon referring American realities previously unknown in Europe: shark, cacique, chocolate, potato ... The contributions are minimal morphological and phonetic, or very small and as substrates, or mistaken for English developments.
For its part, the black population of slave origin, is a high percentage of the West Indies, Caribbean coast and Pacific coast to Ecuador. This fact, they had a precise location, coupled with the fact that numerous collect lusismos by the nationality of the slave, he understood that this population is a mixture of African languages \u200b\u200band Portuguese and English words is called a muzzle. This speech was disappearing in favor of English with a rich vocabulary muzzle reference to religion, to dance and part of everyday material reality. This form of English known as Creole-speaking Africa, survives today in some of the areas outlined.
2.3 .- Influence of northern English.
Phonetically there is no common set of phenomena and, therefore, clear links of dependence on American English with northern Spain. Yet there are similarities in areas where there were settlers from that source. For example, in Chile and parts of Peru, Bolivia and Argentina, the phonemes are pronounced assibilated vibrant and sequence / tr / is pronounced / t / as Africa, followed by an alveolar voiceless frication and vibrant, as in areas of La Rioja , Navarra and the Basque Country. For its part, in Paraguay there leísmo, very rare phenomenon in Latin America - English by the weight of Southern, which is not read - and own Castilian zone. As we shall see, American English, is the direct heir of the southern forms, not the North.
2.4 .- Influence of southern English.
The importance Andalusian element and to a lesser extent, the Canary Islands and Extremadura is a first response in the origin of the early settlers and the fact that women were slow to arrive and, when they did, in the sixteenth century, most were originally from the provinces of Cadiz and Seville. On the other hand, there is a correctness standard rules: Sevilla was the administrative and commercial center in the metropolis, the military leaders were also Southern-Cortés and Pizarro were Extremadura-like these administrative positions in the early days: his method was vested of social and economic prestige soon prevailed. When the viceregal capital, capital as Mexico and Lima, tried to impose the northern English rule was too late and not irradiated beyond its limits, a fact which was helped by the lack of contact between the capital and outlying areas.
even commented that idea in the highlands - Chile and the highlands of Bolivia, Peru, Argentina and Paraguay - more than the landscape and climate, southern, northern form was imposed, but also in those areas the origin was southern settlers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
morphological influence is revealed in the fall the-d of the imperatives - singing - and the fact that, as in parts of western Andalusia, to eliminate the difference between you and you in favor of that, but out of respect, although in Andalusia it is combined with the second person plural - you speak well - while in America joins the third person plural - you speak well -. However
is what South phonetic where the presence is crucial: lisp, yeismo, a number of phenomena related to the liquid and suction / x / and f-h from early America, as we will detail .
2.4.1 .- The lisp. For
successfully
the phenomenon we know as seseo have to go back to court Synchronous history of our language is known as the Preclassic (1474-1525). In that time, in the south of the dental affricates (ie, c + e, i and ç as voiceless / s /, and z as sound / z /) were teeth. This made apicoalveolares be confused with (ie as sound s intervocalic / z /, ys not intervocalic, geminate or not, as voiceless / s /) articulatory proximity. Already
golden age eliminates the whistling noise as was done in the north, so that if c + e, i, ç, z, and s is pronounced as a voiceless interdental, was given the Zeze, while that if pronounced as alveolar deaf, was given the lisp.
then disappeared in southern Spain and Canary apicoalveolar, so that was the phoneme interdental fricative, deaf / O / for graphs c + e, i, ç, z, ys, giving the lisp. However, if such a phoneme is pronounced with dental allophone [s], we face the lisp. It was this latter phenomenon that came to America: note that the complex adjustment of wheezing that we discussed ending its development around 1650, and was already initiated in 1492, ie in the middle period of colonization by people who came from the South Spain. Today is a single lisp phoneme / s /, pronounced predorsal for three graphs: c + e, i; ZYS, as in large parts of Andalusia and the Canaries.
Another phenomenon shared by southern and American English is the aspiration, and even drop / s / final or in implosive position with doubling the following consonant as in Did you hear? pronounced as / tenteráhtte /. In some areas, the implosive s aspiration can cause deafening sound of the following: as dice and / lohtdádoh / and, if s is a final vowel, it can build on it, as in Andalusia: The eyes / lo sóxoh /.
2.4.2 .- The yeísmo. The liquid consonants. The aspiration of / x / and f-h from Latin original.
The pronunciation of the palatal lateral sound, such as African-script ll / and / is widespread in America (except in areas with substrate Quechua - Peru and highland areas adjacent-and Mapuche - parts of southern Chile and Argentina - where there was a palatal lateral). It was a phenomenon already witnessed in Mozarabic (as a group of romance C'L> LI> Y) and was already established in the sixteenth century in Spain.
For its part, the liquid / r / and / l /, as in Andalusia, are bartered - love / grinder / -, vocalize - letter / Kaita / - or even fall - breathe / breathe / -.
As for the aspiration of h-initial f from America, was produced in the sixteenth century so that in 1520 no longer used as a script f [h] as in faminem> hunger / hunger / . However, the aspiration was rejected in the north, but not in Andalusia, where it remains in force, as in America, to elaborate on certain areas to other fricatives labiodental maintained in standard English - outside / ahuéra / - and the desire to ensure the phoneme, fricative, deaf / x /, and in Mexico as / Mehic /.
2.5 .- specific characteristics.
is common in America the overwhelming predominance of the diminutive-ito stylistic value even extended to other categories not nominal - right now - to the point of having shifted a-illo and-ete, and to a lesser extent-ico, which -ito can join - todito -.
Other peculiarities are the addition of American-na enclitic pronouns - and give me demented - or the use of the interjection appellate ché - from a mainland cé from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries and has wide circulation in the speeches River Plate, as in the English Valencia.
Many of the characteristics of American English point of fact, maintaining a certain archaic features, especially reflected in the lexicon: that the use of car by car, or skirt and skirt.
Thus, one of the commonplaces of American English, voseo responds to this trend. In Spain in 1500 was the way you treat to go to equal or lower, and you peer. When you go generalizing, you regained the ground cornering you to delete forever and early eighteenth century.
These changes were implemented in areas later emancipation of the metropolis, with whom he had more contact, such as Mexico, Peru, Bolivia and Cuba, had areas where capital of the viceroyalty, where today, in fact, dominates you - in the West Indies this predominance is explained by the influence of the University of Santo Domingo. However, in areas with less contact with Spain, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Central America and Chiapas - Mexico - you will dominate, while the rest of Latin America contends with another form. Vos
match verb forms were originally plural, as the imperatives without-d final - Song - used in Spain until the seventeenth. Similarly, attached to various verb forms, especially the present tense, which break the diphthong in the ending, missing forms and in the sixteenth century in Spain - You know -. Also noteworthy is the fact that you maintain has not been accompanied by that of you and yours, as had been expected, it agrees with you and yours, your, your, ... - You will return to your home -.
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